Native name	Republic of MadagascarRepoblikan'i MadagasikaraRépublique de Madagascar
Common name	Madagascar
Image coat	Coat of arms of Madagascar.svg
Symbol type	Seal
National motto	''Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana''(Malagasy)''Amour, patrie, progrès''(French)"Love, Fatherland, Progress"
Map caption	Location of Madagascar
National anthem	"Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!"''Oh, Beloved Land of our Ancestors!''
Official languages	Malagasy, French
Capital	Antananarivo
Latns	S
Longew	E
Government type	Caretaker government
Leader title1	President of the High Transitional Authority
Leader name1	Andry Rajoelina
Leader title2	Prime Minister
Leader name2	Albert Camille Vital
Largest city	Antananarivo
Area km2	587,041
Area sq mi	226,597
Area rank	47th
Area magnitude	1 E11
Percent water	0.009%
Water area	5,501
Population estimate	21,926,221
Population estimate year	2011
Population estimate rank	53rd
Population census	12,238,914
Population census year	1993
Population density km2	35.2
Population density sq mi	91.1
Population density rank	174th
Gdp ppp year	2010
Gdp ppp	$19.49 billion
Gdp ppp per capita	$990
Gdp nominal	$8.59 billion
Gdp nominal year	2010
Gdp nominal per capita	$320
Hdi year	2010
Hdi	0.435
Hdi rank	135th
Hdi category	low
Gini	47.5
Gini year	2001
Gini category	high
Sovereignty type	Independence
Sovereignty note	from France
Established event1	Date
Established date1	June 26, 1960
Currency	Malagasy ariary
Currency code	MGA
Time zone	EAT
Utc offset	+3
Time zone dst	''not observed''
Demonym	Malagasy
Utc offset dst	+3
Drives on	right
Cctld	.mg
Calling code	+261 }}

The Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, , ) is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar (at , the fourth-largest island in the world), as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which include Nosy Be and Nosy Boraha (''Île Sainte-Marie'').

The prehistoric breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot in which over 80% of its plant and animal species are found nowhere else on Earth. These are dispersed across a variety of ecoregions, broadly divided into eastern and south-central rain forest, western dry forests, southern desert and spiny forest. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are severely threatened by human settlement and traditional slash-and-burn practices (''tavy'') which have denuded Madagascar of as much as 90% of its original forest cover. Under the administration of former President Marc Ravalomanana, the government of Madagascar partnered with the international community to implement large-scale conservation measures tied to ecotourism as part of the national development strategy. However, under Rajoelina's caretaker government there has been a dramatic increase in illegal logging of precious woods and the poaching and sale of threatened species such as lemurs in Madagascar's many national parks, several of which are classified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Most archaeologists believe Madagascar was first inhabited sometime between 300 BCE and 500 CE by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo in the Indonesian archipelago who were later joined around 1000 CE by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel. Arab, East African, Indian, Chinese and European (primarily French) migrants settled on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often sub-divided into sixteen or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands around Antananarivo, and the Betsimisaraka people of the eastern coast around Toamasina. The Austronesian origins of the earliest population are evident not only in the physical appearance of many Malagasy people, but also in cultural practices related to the veneration of ancestors, the prevalence of the valiha (a bamboo tube zither of East Asian origin) in Malagasy musical traditions, architectural methods and norms, and a cuisine based on rice that establishes the Malagasy people as the largest rice consumers per capita in the world; European, Asian and Indian influences are also evident in local cuisine. The first transcription of Malagasy using Arabic script (''sorabe'') and certain elements of Malagasy cosmology were introduced by Arabs, while Bantu influences are evident in the spiritual and monetary value placed on zebu. Malagasy, the Austronesian language spoken in various forms by the vast majority of the population, is the national language and one of two current official languages alongside French. The majority of the population adheres to a combination of traditional beliefs and Christianity, but followers of other faiths such as Islam and Hinduism are found in smaller numbers throughout the country.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was populated by a fragmented assortment of shifting socio-political alliances of varying sizes. Beginning in the early 19th century, however, the majority of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of nobles (''andriana'') of the Merina ethnic group. The monarchy collapsed when the island was conquered and absorbed into the French colonial empire in 1896, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, including a post-colonial First Republic under President Philibert Tsiranana (1960–1972), a Soviet-style socialist Second Republic under Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (1975–1991), and a democratic Third Republic under successive presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka and Marc Ravalomanana (1992–2009). Since 1992 the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo by an elected president who serves a renewable five-year term and is supported by the prime minister he or she nominates. However, following a popular uprising in 2009 instigated by then-mayor of Antananarivo and TGV political party president Andry Rajoelina, Ravalomanana was pressured to resign. Presidential power was then unconstitutionally transferred to Rajoelina with the support of a portion of the military. A 2010 constitutional referendum ushered in the Fourth Republic in which the nation continues to be managed by Rajoelina's unelected caretaker government known as the High Transitional Authority (HAT). Rajoelina (b. 1974), currently the youngest head of state in Africa, has failed to secure recognition from the international community, which largely views the current administration as illegitimate and has widely characterized Rajoelina's seizure of power as a ''coup d'état''.

In 2010, the population of Madagascar was estimated at around 20 million, 85% of whom live on less than two dollars per day. Ecotourism, agriculture, expansion of international trade and greater investments in education, health and private enterprise are key elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Under Ravalomanana, these investments produced substantive economic growth but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class. Current and future generations in Madagascar are faced with the challenge of striking a balance between economic growth, equitable development and natural conservation.

Etymology

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called ''Madagasikara'' and its people are referred to as ''Malagasy''. However, the island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. The name ''Madageiscar'' was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted form of the name Mogadishu, the Somalian port with which Polo had confused the island. On St. Laurence's Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and christened it ''São Lourenço'', but Polo's name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. No single Malagasy-language name predating ''Madagasikara'' appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited.

Geography

At , Madagascar is the world's 47th-largest country and the fourth-largest island. The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. The prehistoric breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation.

The island of Madagascar can be divided into three broad geographic zones. These include the highlands, a plateau region in the center of the island ranging in altitude from above sea level; a narrow and steep escarpment that runs the length of the eastern coast and contains much of the island's remaining tropical rain forest; and a wide, dry plain that gently slopes from the western boundaries of the highlands toward the Mozambique Channel. The central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people (the island's most numerous ethnic group) and location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, is the most densely populated part of the island and is characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy, deforested hills. Here, erosion has exposed the island's red laterite soil, source of the country's sobriquet "The Red Island". Madagascar's highest peaks arise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro () in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak () in the Andringitra Massif and Tsiafajavona () in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the ''Canal des Pangalanes'' is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by French-built canals just inland from the east coast, running parallel to it for some . The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Presumably due to relatively lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous rain forest has been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the high central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the vast western plains.

Climate

The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoon winds produce a hot rainy season (November—April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May—October). Broadly speaking, the climate is tropical along the coast, temperate inland, moderately dry in the west, and arid in the south. Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast where precipitation as heavy as 150 in (3,800 mm) per year supports the area's rain forest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler, while the west coast is drier still, with high aridity in the southwest and southern part of the island where a semi-desert climate prevails. Annual cyclones cause regular damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. The most destructive since 1927 was Cyclone Geralda (February 2–4, 1994) which caused over 70 fatalities and left over 500,000 people homeless with the damage estimated at US$45 million.

Ecology

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to a vast array of plants and animals, many found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 80% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic, including the lemur infraorder of primates, the carnivorous fossa and three avian families. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot.

Over 10,000 plant species are native to Madagascar, of which 90% are found nowhere else in the world. Seven plant families are only found here, the highest number of any biodiversity hotspot in the world. The plant family ''didiereaceae'', composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's ''pachypodium'' species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 960 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's eight baobab species. The island is also home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as are found on mainland Africa; 165 of these are endemic. Many native plant species are used as effective herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions, including the Madagascar periwinkle, which has recently been established as the most effective treatment for leukemia and Hodgkin's disease. The traveler's palm, endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo.

Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2008, there are officially 99 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which have been described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since man arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.

The biodiversity of fauna in Madagascar extends beyond prosimians to the wider animal population. A number of other mammals, including the cat-like fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of bird have been recorded on the island, of which over 60% (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic. The few families and genera of reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90% of these being endemic (including one endemic family). The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species, and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may represent the origin of all chameleon species. Endemic fishes on Madagascar include two families, 14 genera and over 100 species primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrate species remain poorly studied on Madagascar relative to other wildlife, researchers have found high rates of endemism among known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders and dragonflies.

Environmental challenges

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity. Since the arrival of humans 2,000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest, of which one-third has disappeared since the 1970s. A key contributor to the loss of forest cover is slash-and-burn activity, locally called ''tavy''. This traditional practice was imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers from Indonesia around 2,000 years ago and has strong cultural meaning in addition to its practical value as an agricultural technique. Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. This process is exemplified by the extinction of elephant birds (''Aepyornis''), an endemic giant ratite that was formerly the world's largest bird. This species, whose average height was over tall, has been extinct since at least the 17th century, most likely due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their massive eggs for food. Numerous subfossil lemur species also vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, and today most extant lemurs are listed as endangered or threatened species due to habitat destruction. Many species have gone extinct over the course of the last centuries as a growing population has put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.

Under President Marc Ravalomanana, a vigorous effort was made to expand Madagascar's protected natural areas. At the 2003 IUCN World Parks Congress in Durban, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, a bold initiative to more than triple the area under protection from approximately 17,000 km² to over 60,000 km² (from 3% to 10% of Madagascar's area). As of 2011, areas protected by the state include five Strict Nature Reserves (''Réserves Naturelles Intégrales''), 21 Wildlife Reserves (''Réserves Spéciales'') and 21 National Parks (''Parcs Nationaux''). In 2007 six of the national parks were voted in as a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These six are: Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra National Park. Local timber barons are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests such as Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments. To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "''Madagascar!''" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York.

History

Early history

Most archaeologists estimate that the earliest settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo between 200 BCE and 500 CE, making Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by people. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced ''tavy'' (swidden, slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of their crops. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 CE groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central Highlands. Irrigated rice paddies emerged in highland Betsileo country by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout Imerina a century later. Zebu were introduced around 1000 CE by Bantu-speaking East African migrants who maintained large herds. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the region from a forest ecosystem to barren grassland by the 17th century.

Merina oral histories tell of migration from the southeast coast to the central highlands where the Merina encountered an established population called the Vazimba, who may have been the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave. The Vazimba were vanquished by Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries.

The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century when Arabs established trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as ''sorabe''), Arab astrology and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island. The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century, around the same time that Captain Misson and his pirate crew allegedly founded the famous pirate utopia of Libertalia on the small island of Nosy Boraha off Madagascar's northeastern coast. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favorite haunt for pirates.

Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement. Later, it gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The wealth generated by this trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, likewise emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.

Kingdom of Madagascar

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. However, following a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his capital at Ambohimanga (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities with the intent to bring the entire island under his control, an ambition largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–1828). Radama concluded a treaty with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818. James Cameron and others established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–1861), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and eventually expelling all foreigners from the territory. Her son and successor, Radama II (1861–1863), attempted to relax his mother's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony (1852–1865) and other courtiers. The courtiers, seeking to end the absolute power of the monarch, offered Radama's queen Rasoherina (1863–1868) the opportunity to rule if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister—a new social contract to be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first wedding Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and wedding his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony (1864–1895), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II (1868–1883) and Queen Ranavalona III) (1883–1897) in succession.

French colonization

France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War on the pretext of the non-respect of the Lambert Charter—a document granting lucrative concessions to French citizens—and a letter entreating the assistance of the French in ending the rule of Ranavalona I, both signed by former king Radama II. At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate. Ultimately, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. The flying column proceeded to march toward Antananarivo but lost many to malaria and other diseases, necessitating reinforcements drawn from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the Rova palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. After the conclusion of hostilities, in 1896 France annexed Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family being sent into exile, first to Reunion Island and then to Algeria the following year.

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. Wide paved boulevards and gathering spaces were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached; education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills. The Merina royal tradition of ''corvee''—taxes paid in the form of labor—was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking the coastal cities to Antananarivo. During World War I, 46,000 Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria. Some leaders in Nazi Germany proposed deporting all of Europe's Jews to Madagascar (the Madagascar Plan), but nothing came of this. After France fell to Germany, the Vichy government administered Madagascar. During the Battle of Madagascar, British troops occupied the island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese, after which the Free French took over. With French prestige at low ebb after the end of World War II, the Malagasy Uprising of 1947 broke out. It was suppressed after over a year of bitter fighting, with death toll estimates ranging from 10,000 to over 80,000. The French later established reformed institutions in 1956 under the ''Loi Cadre'' (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960.

Government

Capital

Antananarivo is the capital and the largest city of Madagascar. It is located in the highlands region, very near to the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga. In 1793 it became the capital, under the Merina kings, of the whole island, and in 1895, after the French conquest of Madagascar, the center of the French colonial administration. In 1960, after independence, it became the capital of the Malagasy Republic. In 2011, the capital's population was estimated at 903,000 inhabitants.

Administrative divisions

Madagascar was divided into six autonomous provinces (''faritany mizakatena''), and subdivided into 22 regions (''faritra''), the latter created in 2004. The regions became the highest subdivision level when the provinces were dissolved in accordance with the results of the 2007 referendum. The regions are further subdivided into 116 districts, 1,548 communes, and 16,969 ''fokontany''. The major cities have a special status as "''commune urbaine''", at the same level as the districts.

+ Regions and former provinces !New regions !	Former provinces !! Population
Diana Region	Antsiranana	1,188,500
Itasy (3), Analamanga (4), Vakinankaratra (5), Bongolava (6)	Antananarivo Province>Antananarivo
Sofia Region	Sofia (7), Boeny (8), Betsiboka (9), Melaky (10)	Mahajanga Province>Mahajanga
Alaotra Mangoro (11), Atsinanana (12), Analanjirofo (13)	Toamasina Province>Toamasina
Amoron'i Mania (14), Haute-Matsiatra (15), Vatovavy-Fitovinany (16), Atsimo-Atsinanana (17), Ihorombe (18)	Fianarantsoa Province>Fianarantsoa
Menabe (19), Atsimo-Andrefana (20), Androy (21), Anosy (22)	Toliara Province>Toliara

Military

The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms. By the early 19th century, Kingdom of Imerina was able to bring much of the island under Merina control with an army ranging from 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers. French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted British mercenaries to provide training to the queen's army. However, the Malagasy military proved unable to withstand French weaponry and was declared a colony of France in 1897.

Madagascar regained political independence and sovereignty over its military in 1960. Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka declared mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender. Ratsiraka would furthermore mobilize elements of the military to pacify unarmed protesters, occasionally using violent means. His order to fire upon unarmed protesters in 1989 was the catalyst for transition to the democratic Third Republic in 1992. The military remained largely neutral during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections. By contrast, in 2009 a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power. It is widely believed that payoffs were involved in persuading these military personnel to change camps in support of the ''coup d'etat''.

Politics

Although the head of state since March 2009 is self-proclaimed, Madagascar is usually a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected President is the head of state and selects a Prime Minister to form a government. In the Malagasy system, the word ''government'' refers collectively to the President, the Prime Minister and all the heads of government ministries (Ministers), the latter being selected by the Prime Minister but serving at the pleasure of the President. According to the constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in both the government and the Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution declares the judiciary to be independent of the executive and the legislature, but constitutional provisions empowering the Minister of Justice to interfere in operations of the judiciary branch effectively undermine intended separation of powers, consolidating the strength of the executive branch.

The political situation in Madagascar has been marked by struggle for control. After Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, two military coups and one assassination. Didier Ratsiraka took power in a military coup in 1975 and ruled until 2001, with a short break when he was ousted in the early 1990s. When Marc Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka both claimed victory after presidential elections in December 2001, Ratsiraka's supporters tried to blockade the capital, Antananarivo, which was pro-Ravalomanana. After eight months of sporadic violence with considerable economic disruption, a recount in April 2002 led the High Constitutional Court to pronounce Ravalomanana president, but it was not until July that Ratsiraka fled to France and Ravalomanana gained control of the country. Between 2002 and 2009, Ravalomanana and his party ''Tiako I Madagasikara'' (TIM) dominated political life. Ravalomanana's re-election in December 2006 was met with some protests over worsening standards of living, despite an ongoing government drive to eradicate poverty.

A series of protests against then-President Marc Ravalomanana in 2009, backed by Andry Rajoelina, former mayor of Antananarivo, became violent, with more than 170 people killed. Rajoelina mobilized his supporters to take to the streets of Antananarivo to demand Ravalomanana's ousting on the grounds of his autocratic style of government. After losing support of the military and under intense pressure from Rajoelina, President Ravalomanana resigned on March 17, 2009. Ravalomanana assigned his powers to a military council loyal to himself headed by Vice-Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson. The military called the move by Ravalomanana a "ploy" and said that it would support Rajoelina as leader. Rajoelina had already declared himself the new leader a month earlier and assumed the role of acting President, appointing Monja Roindefo as Prime Minister. Rajoelina announced that elections would be held in two years and that the constitution would be amended. The European Union, amongst other international entities, refused to recognize the new government, due to it being installed by force. The African Union, which proceeded to suspend Madagascar's membership on March 20, and the Southern Africa Development Community both criticized the forced resignation of Ravalomanana.

Foreign relations

Madagascar was historically perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was founded in 1963. France remained the country's closest partner throughout the First Republic, stirring popular resentment and public protests that ultimately toppled the Tsiranana regime. Ratsiraka's socialist Second Republic turned its attention to partnerships with the Soviet Union, China and other socialist states. The weakened political and economic position of these partner states was a contributing factor to the collapse of the Second Republic.

The launch of the democratic Third Republic in 1993 marked a shift toward a capitalist economic growth model necessitating expanded diplomatic and economic ties within the global market. President Zafy, expressing desire for diplomatic relations with all countries, established formal ties with South Korea and sent emissaries to Morocco. The pressures of globalisation obliged President Ratsiraka to adhere to market-oriented policies and to engage world markets when he was voted into office in 1997. External relations have since reflected this trend, although Madagascar's physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its East African neighbours. It enjoys closer and generally good relations with its Indian Ocean neighbours – Mauritius, Réunion and Comoros. Active relationships with Europe, especially France, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as with Britain, Russia, Japan, India and China have been strong since independence. More recently, President Ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the United States, and Madagascar was the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account. Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98). Numerous countries have established and maintain a diplomatic presence in Madagascar. During his presidency, Marc Ravalomanana traveled widely promoting Madagascar abroad and consciously sought to strengthen relations with Anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong French influence. He also cultivated strong ties with China during his tenure.

The Organisation of African Unity dissolved in 2002 and was replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the election in December 2001, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. However, Madagascar was suspended again by the African Union in March 2009 because of ongoing political crisis.

In November 2004, after an absence of almost 30 years, Madagascar re-opened its embassy in London. On 15 December 2004 Foreign Secretary Jack Straw announced the closure of the British embassy in Antananarivo to save £250,000 per year. He also announced an end to the government's aid to Madagascar. The embassy closed in August 2005. The British Embassy was previously closed (also for financial reasons) from 1975 to 1980. The Anglo-Malagasy Society are campaigning to have it re-opened.

Human rights

Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution. However the extent to which such rights are reflected in practice, is subject to debate. The 2010 Human Rights Report by the United States Department of State noted concerns regarding the suspension of democratic electoral processes as the result of recent political unrest. Furthermore, reports of corruption, arbitrary arrest, widespread underage prostitution and child labor highlight the prevalence of human rights issues in the country. Accusations of media censorship have risen since 2009 due to the allegedly increasing restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.

Economy

Madagascar's sources of growth are tourism, textile and light manufacturing exports (notably through the EPZs), agricultural products, and mining. Madagascar is the world's leading producer of vanilla and accounts for about half the world's export market. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. Exports from the EPZs, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, comprise the majority of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under AGOA and the European markets under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Agricultural exports consist of low-volume high-value products like vanilla, lychees and essential oils. A small but growing part of the economy is based on mining of ilmenite, with investments emerging in recent years, particularly near Tulear and Fort Dauphin.

Natural resources

Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of unprocessed agricultural and mineral resources. Key agricultural resources include vanilla, lychees and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, ilmenite and petrol. Several major projects are underway in the mining and oil and gas sectors that, if successful, will give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. In the mining sector, these include the development of coal at Sakoa and nickel near Tamatave. In oil, Madagascar Oil is developing the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga. Mining corporation Rio Tinto Group began operations near Fort Dauphin in 2008, following several years of infrastructure preparation. The mining project is highly controversial, with Friends of the Earth and other environmental organizations filing reports to detail their concerns about effects on the local environment and communities.

Infrastructure

International trade

Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay of the economy. Major exports are coffee, vanilla (Madagascar is the world's largest producer and exporter of vanilla), sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts and livestock products. Vanilla has historically been of particular importance, and when in 1985 Coca-cola switched to New Coke which involved less vanilla, Madagascar's economy took a marked downturn but returned to previous levels after the return of Coke Classic.

Domestic economy

Tourism

Economic development

Structural reforms began in the late 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions, notably the World Bank. An initial privatization program (1988–1993) and the development of an export processing zone regime in the early 1990s were key milestones in this effort. A period of significant stagnation from 1991 to 1996 was followed by five years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment. Although structural reforms advanced, governance remained weak, and perceived political corruption was high. During the period of solid growth from 1997 to 2001, poverty levels remained high, especially in rural areas.

A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002. Real GDP dropped 12.7% for the year 2002, inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar's budding reputation as an AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. After the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003. Currency depreciation and rising inflation in 2004 have hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3%, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy of raising the ''Taux Directeur'' (central bank rate) to 16% and tightening reserve requirements for banks. Thus growth was expected to reach around 6.5% in 2005.

Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with international financial institutions and donors. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a "Friends of Madagascar" conference organized by the World Bank in Paris in July 2002. Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging $1 billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee.

In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and World Bank agreed in December 2000 that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative and defined a set of conditions for Madagascar to reach the completion point. In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative.

The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed as a collaboration between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Malagasy artisan producers in Madagascar in 2002. The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organizations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups.

The government of President Ravalomanana aggressively sought foreign investment and attempted to tackle many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods TIKO company, and attempted to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. In the latter half of his presidency, concerns arose about the conflict of interest between his policies and the activities of his firms. Most notable among them the preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 when responding to a production shortfall in the country.

Demographics

Madagascar's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian (i.e. South-East Asian/Pacific Islander) and African origin. Those who are visibly Austronesian in appearance and culture are the minority, found mostly in the highland regions. Recent DNA research shows that the Malagasy people are approximately of half Austronesian and half East African descent, although some Arab, Indian and European influence is present along the coast.

Subsequent migrations from the East Indies and Africa consolidated this original mixture, and over a dozen distinct tribal groups emerged. Austronesian features are most predominant in the Merina (3 million); the coastal people (called ''côtiers'') have relatively stronger African origins. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). The Vezo live in the southwest. Two of the southern tribes are the Antandroy and the Antanosy. Other tribes include Tankarana (northern tip), Sihanaka and Bezanozano (east), Tanala (south-east), Antaimoro, Tambahoaka, Zafisoro, Antaisaka and Timanambondro (south-east coast), and Mahafaly and Bara (south-west). Chinese and Indian minorities also exist, as well as Europeans, mostly French. In 1958, there were 68,430 European settlers living in Madagascar. The number of Comorans residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comoran rioting in Mahajanga in 1976.

During the French colonial administration (1895–1960) and some time after independence, people were officially classified in ethnic groups. This practice was abandoned in the first census (1975) after independence so any recent classification and figures for ethnic groups is an unofficial estimate. There is for instance no mention of ethnicity or religion in the national identity cards. Also, territorial divisions (provinces, regions) do not follow any ethnic division lines, despite an attempt by the colonial administration in the early 20th century. Ethnic divisions continue, and may cause violence, but their role is limited in today's society. Political tensions between the highlanders and coastal population periodically flare up into limited violent conflict. Regional political parties are also rare, although some parties receive most of their support in certain areas. Only two general censuses, 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. In 1993 (last census) there were 18,497 foreign residents on Madagascar, or 0.15% of the population.

Health

Maternal and Child Health Care

In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Madagascar is 440. This is compared with 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 61 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 37. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. In Madagascar the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 4 and 1 in 45 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women. Two-thirds of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.

Education

Prior to the 19th century, all learning in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural norms, including respect for ancestors and elders. The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 on the east coast of Madagascar at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS). King Radama I (1810–1828) invited LMS missionaries to establish schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to the children of ''andriana'' (nobles) who would go on to serve as soldiers or royal aides. Because the missionaries insisted on using the Bible to teach literacy in support of their own agenda to spread Christianity, Radama's successor, Ranavalona I, expelled the missionaries and closed the schools in 1835. This policy was reversed upon her death, and by the end of the 19th century Madagascar could boast the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa.

Limited access and poor quality have plagued the schools of Madagascar from the colonial period to the present. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers and French as the language of instruction created tension among those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power. Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy. This policy, known as ''malgachization'', coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education; people schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects. Struggling in the competitive local employment market, most remained mired in deepening poverty as they were obliged to turn to low-paying jobs in the informal or black market. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 1999 and failed to achieve significant improvements in the sector throughout this time.

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration. During his first term, thousands of new schools and additional classrooms were constructed while many older buildings were renovated. Tens of thousands of new teachers were recruited and trained. The minimum education standard for the recruitment of primary teachers was raised from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC). School supplies and uniforms were provided at public schools and official school fees were eliminated, although fees are still commonly charged by parent-teacher associations to pay the salaries of teachers hired locally when demand for education exceeds official capacity. Public expenditure on education was at 16.4% of total government expenditure in the 2000–2007 period with per-pupil expenditure at the primary level at about US$57. As a result, primary school enrollment rates jumped from 63% in 2000 to 95% in 2005. Increased access has posed continuing challenges for quality, however, and Madagascar continues to have extremely high rates of grade repetition and student drop-out. Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.

Society

Ethnic diversity

Following the arrival of Bantu-speaking migrants from East Africa, these newcomers intermixed with the original Austronesian population across the island, eventually settling into ethnic groups numbering from 16 to 20 or more according to various estimations. Today, the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy reflects an equal blend of south Borneo and East African origins, although certain populations such as the predominantly Austronesian Merina or the partially Arab Antaimoro ethnic groups may deviate from this standard. {| |+ Malagasy Ethnic Groups !Peoples !Regional concentration |- | Antankarana, Sakalava, Tsimihety || Antsiranana Province |- | Sakalava, Vezo || Mahajanga Province |- | Betsimisaraka, Sihanaka, Bezanozano || Toamasina Province |- | Merina || Antananarivo Province |- | Betsileo, Antaifasy, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, Antaisaka, Tanala || Fianarantsoa Province |- | Mahafaly, Antandroy, Antanosy people, Bara, Vezo || Toliara Province |}

Language

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible, can be clustered under one of two sub-groups: eastern Malagasy (spoken along the eastern forests and highlands, including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo) and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French became the official language during the colonial period when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is spoken among the educated population. English, although uncommon, has gradually become more widely spoken.

No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000 on the grounds that the publication of official documents in the French language only was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language. In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English. English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the November referendum 2010. The outcome of the referendum and its consequences for official and national language policy are not recognized by the political opposition or by the international community, who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the organization of the election by the High Transitional Authority.

Religion

Approximately 50% of the country's population practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the dead. The Merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice. A powerful individual may establish a fady (taboo) in his or her lifetime that all their descendents or those of community members will be required to respect well after their death, meaning that when traveling in Madagascar it is advisable to seek out village elders or authorities and inquire into local fady in order not to inadvertently transgress and offend the local population. This veneration of ancestors has also led to the tradition of tomb building and the famadihana, a practice whereby a deceased family member's remains may be taken from the tomb to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds known as ''lamba'' before being replaced in the tomb. The event is an occasion to celebrate the loved one's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are often served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is typically present.

About 45% of the Malagasy are Christian, divided almost evenly between Catholics and Protestants. In 1818 the London Missionary Society sent the first Christian missionaries to successfully install themselves on the island, building churches, translating the Bible into Malagasy language and winning over numerous converts. Beginning in 1835 Queen Ranavalona I vigorously persecuted early converts to Christianity in an attempt to halt European cultural and political influence on the island. In 1869 a successor, Queen Ranavalona II, converted the court to Christianity and encouraged Christian missionary activity, burning the ''sampy'' (royal idols) in a symbolic break with traditional beliefs. Today, many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones relating to honoring the ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches comprising the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations (Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican).

Eastern religions are also present on the island. Islam was first brought to the island in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the Islamic religion failed to take hold in all but a handful of southeastern coastal communities. Today, Muslims constitute 7% of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana (Diego Suarez). Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorians. More recently, Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi.

Culture

Malagasy culture reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Arab, African and European influences.

Houses in Madagascar are typically four-sided with a peaked roof similar to those commonly seen in Southeast Asia, rather than the circular style of hut more commonly found in Eastern Africa. Malagasy architecture varies widely depending on locally available materials and practical needs. Most traditionally, homes are built from plant materials; this form of construction remains prevalent outside of the central Highlands and major urban areas. In the Highlands, houses are most often two-story brick structures, occasionally with pillars supporting a front veranda. The orientation and interior layout of homes in traditional communities often followed certain cosmological norms. This tradition has been increasingly abandoned over the past century, as has the use of traditional building materials among the upper classes for whom imported materials and foreign construction styles are associated with modernity and prestige. Tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to utilize stone in their construction. The zebu (humped cattle), introduced to Madagascar by Bantu-speaking East African migrants around 1,000 years ago, have come to occupy an important place in traditional Malagasy culture. The animal can take on sacred importance and constitutes the wealth of the owner, a tradition originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers. Where African influences are strongest, as in the southern region around Tulear, wealth and social status are traditionally measured in cattle.

Arab and Somali traders who called on the ports of Madagascar in the Middle Ages, although few in number compared to the Indonesians and Bantus, had a deep influence on the island and the coastal regions in particular. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins are Arabic in origin, as is the practice of circumcision, the communal grain pool, and different forms of salutation. The Antaimoro people of southeastern Madagascar claim to be direct descendants of early Arab immigrants, and over at least the past five hundred years, the acclaimed ''ombiasy'' (astrologers) of this ethnic group have served as privileged counselors to the nobles of various communities across the island.

The cuisine of Madagascar likewise reflects diverse influences from around the world. Rice forms the basis of every meal in most parts of Madagascar, which has the highest per capita rate of rice consumption in the world. The dishes prepared to accompany the rice vary depending on local availability of food products and are known as ''laoka.'' Many of these dishes reflect the culinary influences of Indian, Chinese, French and other arrivals to the island. A wide variety of snacks and street foods are eaten, particularly ''mofo'' (fritter or cake-like treats). In the arid south and west, rice may be supplanted by cassava (yuca), sweet potatoes and corn and supplemented with curdled or fresh zebu milk. Rum (''toaka gasy'') and ''betsabetsa'' are two forms of traditional spirits produced on the island. Wine and beer are also locally produced, as are cocoa, tea and coffee, the latter widely consumed throughout the island. Herbal teas, sodas and fruit juices are also popular drinks. Storytelling and proverbs enabled traditional communities to express and preserve their histories and worldview and transmit it to future generations. The supernatural is featured in many of these stories, including witchcraft, the intercession of god or the ancestors, and the existence of a variety of fantastical creatures. Chief among these are the vazimba, the supposed first inhabitants of Madagascar who have in popular memory been transformed into capricious spirits that, if angered, will interfere in the lives of the living.

Madagascar has also developed a distinctive and rich musical heritage. The early Austronesian settlers brought with them the predecessor to the bamboo tube zither known as the valiha—considered the national instrument of Madagascar—as well as numerous other instruments that constitute the foundation of traditional Malagasy music. The influence of African musical tradition manifests in certain drumming and polyharmonic singing styles, particularly among the western and southern coastal communities, while the tendency toward minor chords in these regions reflects an Arab musical influence. Europeans likewise contributed to Malagasy musical traditions, importing the guitar, accordion, piano and the instruments used in hiragasy performance including the violin, trumpet and clarinet.

Sport and recreation

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. ''Maraingy'', a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate. The wrestling of zebu is also practiced in many regions. In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. ''Fanorona'' is a board game that is associated with the Merina sovereigns and is widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially due to the unhealthy obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing ''fanorona'' to the detriment of his other responsibilities.

Western sports were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Football and rugby are especially popular. Pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, is also widely played in urban areas and particularly throughout the Highlands. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque.

Scouting is popular among boys and girls alike and is represented in Madagascar by its own local association.

See also

Notes

References

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External links

;Government

The Madagascar Government

Haute Autorite de Transition HAT of Madagascar

National Assembly of Madagascar

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Madagascar

Embassies and Consulates

*Canada Hungary Washington DC

Chief of State and Cabinet Members, from CIA

;General information

Country Profile from BBC News

Madagascar from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''

;News media

Madagascar Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN United Nations

Madagascar news headline links from ''allAfrica.com''

;Ecology

Madagascar's National Parks and Reserves official park website

Trouble in Lemur Land a professional 50 minute HD film about illegal rosewood logging in Madagascar and the impact on the silky sifaka lemur

Conservation International – Madagascar overview pages

Madagascar Wildlife Conservation (MWC) a Malagasy non-profit association that organises and pursues community-based conservations projects

New York Academy of Sciences ''Conserving Madagascar'' – Podcast by Helen Crowley

''Madagascar'' conservation story

Journal Madagascar Conservation & Development

BBC Nature Madagascan wildlife: Discover what makes Madagascar's wildlife so different from the rest of the world, and how evolution ran wild there. Facts, sounds and video.

;Miscellaneous

The Madagascar Project, Project set up to help Malagasy communities tackle the causes and effects of poverty

Old maps of Madagascar by CEGET library (CNRS, France)

Azafady UK charity and Malagasy NGO working in southeast Madagascar to alleviate poverty, improve well-being and protect beautiful unique environments with the help of its award winning volunteering programmes.

Shama Foundation of Madagascar charitable organization providing scholarships for underprivileged students in Madagascar

Opinions of La Haute Cour Constitutionelle du Madagascar

Blue Ventures award winning not-for-profit organisation dedicated to facilitating projects and expeditions that enhance global marine conservation and research. Based in Andavadoaka, South West coast of Madagascar.

Foko-madagascar not-for-profit organization and Rising Voices grantee project dedicated to the use of ICT as a tool to promote sustainable development, especially combining human development and the protection of the environment.

The Palmarium reserve, is situated on the East coast of Madagascar.

Keelonga, keelonga is an organisation dedicated to assisting rural primary schools with infrastructures and teachers

The State of the World's Midwifery - Madagascar Country Profile

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name	Ben Stiller
birth name	Benjamin Edward Stiller
birth date	November 30, 1965
birth place	New York City, United States
occupation	Actor, comedian, director, producer, screenwriter
years active	1975–present
spouse	Christine Taylor (2000–present; 2 children)
parents	Jerry Stiller, Anne Meara }}

Benjamin Edward "Ben" Stiller (born November 30, 1965) is an American comedian, actor, writer, film director, and producer. He is the son of veteran comedians and actors Jerry Stiller and Anne Meara.

After beginning his acting career with a play, Stiller wrote several mockumentaries, and was offered two of his own shows, both entitled ''The Ben Stiller Show''. He began acting in films, and made his directorial debut with ''Reality Bites''. Throughout his career he has since written, starred in, directed, and/or produced over 50 films including ''Heavyweights'', ''There's Something About Mary'', ''Meet the Parents'', ''Zoolander'', ''Dodgeball'', ''Tropic Thunder'' and ''Greenberg''. In addition, he has had multiple cameos in music videos, television shows, and films.

Stiller is a member of the comedic acting brotherhood colloquially known as the Frat Pack. His films have grossed more than $2.1 billion domestically (United States and Canada), with an average of $73 million per film. Throughout his career, he has received several awards and honors including an Emmy Award, several MTV Movie Awards, and a Teen Choice Award.

Early life

Stiller was born in New York City. His father, Jerry Stiller, is Jewish; his mother, Anne Meara, who is of Irish Catholic background, converted to Reform Judaism after marrying his father (though the family celebrated both Hanukkah and Christmas). Stiller's parents frequently took him on the sets of their appearances, including an appearance on ''The Mike Douglas Show'' when he was six. He admitted in an interview that he considered his childhood unusual: "In some ways, it was a show-business upbringing—a lot of traveling, a lot of late nights—not what you'd call traditional." His sister, actress Amy Stiller, has made appearances in many of his productions, including ''Reality Bites'', ''Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story'', and ''Zoolander''.

He displayed an early interest in film making and made Super 8 movies with his sister and friends. At 10 years old, he made his acting debut as a guest on his mother's television series ''Kate McShane''. In the late 1970s he performed with the New York City troupe NYC's First All Children's Theater, performing in several roles, including the title role in ''Clever Jack and the Magic Beanstalk.'' After being inspired by the television show ''Second City Television'' while in high school, Stiller realized that he wanted to get involved with sketch comedy.

Stiller attended the Cathedral School and graduated from the Calhoun School in New York in 1983. He started performing on the cabaret circuit as opening act to the cabaret siren Jadin Wong. Stiller then enrolled as a film student at the University of California, Los Angeles. After nine months, Stiller left school to move back to New York City. He made his way through acting classes, auditioning, and trying to find an agent.

Acting career

Early work

Stiller landed a role in the Broadway revival of John Guare's ''The House of Blue Leaves'', alongside John Mahoney; the production would garner four Tony Awards. During its run, Stiller produced a satirical mockumentary whose principal was fellow actor Mahoney. His comedic work was so well received by the cast and crew of the play that he followed up with a 10 minute short called ''The Hustler of Money'', a parody of the Martin Scorsese film ''The Color of Money''. The film featured him in a send-up of Tom Cruise's character and Mahoney in the Paul Newman role, only this time as a bowling hustler instead of a pool shark. The short got the attention of ''Saturday Night Live'', which aired it in 1987, and two years later offered him a spot as a writer. In the meantime, he also had a bit part in Steven Spielberg's ''Empire of the Sun''.

In 1989, Stiller wrote and appeared on a season of ''Saturday Night Live'' as a featured performer. However, since the show did not want him to make more short films for the show, he left after five episodes. He then put together ''Elvis Stories'', a short film about a fictitious tabloid focused on recent sightings of Elvis Presley. The film starred friends and co-stars John Cusack, Jeremy Piven, Mike Myers, Andy Dick, and Jeff Kahn. The film was considered a success, and led him to develop another film titled ''Back to Brooklyn'' for MTV.

''The Ben Stiller Show''

MTV was so impressed with ''Back to Brooklyn'' that they offered Stiller a 13-episode show in the experimental "vid-com" format. Titled ''The Ben Stiller Show'', this series mixed comedy sketches with music videos and parodied various television shows, music stars, and films. It starred Stiller, along with main writer Jeff Khan and Harry O'Reilly with occasional appearances by his parents Jerry Stiller and Anne Meara, and sister Amy Stiller.

Although the show was canceled after its first season, it led to another show titled ''The Ben Stiller Show'' on the Fox Network in 1992. ''The Ben Stiller Show'' aired 12 episodes on Fox, with a 13th unaired episode broadcast by Comedy Central in a later revival. Among the principal writers on ''The Ben Stiller Show'' were Stiller and Judd Apatow, with the show featuring the ensemble cast of Stiller, Janeane Garofalo, Andy Dick, and Bob Odenkirk. Both Denise Richards and Jeanne Tripplehorn appeared as extras in various episodes. Throughout its short run, ''The Ben Stiller Show'' frequently appeared at the bottom of the ratings, even as it garnered critical acclaim and eventually won the Emmy for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing in a Variety or Music Program" after it was canceled.

Directorial debut

After a few minor film roles in the early 1990s, such as ''Stella'', ''Highway to Hell'', and a cameo in ''The Nutt House'', Stiller devoted his time to writing, fund raising, recruiting cast members, starring in, and directing ''Reality Bites''. The film was produced by Danny DeVito (who later directed Stiller's 2003 film ''Duplex'' and produced the 2004 film ''Along Came Polly''). ''Reality Bites'' debuted as the highest-grossing film in its opening weekend and received mixed reviews.

He joined his parents in the family film ''Heavyweights'', in which he played two roles, and then had a brief uncredited role in Adam Sandler's ''Happy Gilmore''. Next, he had lead roles in ''If Lucy Fell'' and ''Flirting with Disaster'', before tackling his next directorial effort with ''The Cable Guy'' which starred Jim Carrey. Stiller once again was featured in his own film as twins. The film received mixed reviews, but was noted for paying the highest salary for an actor up to that point. Jim Carrey received $20 million for his work in the film. The film also connected Stiller with future Frat Pack members Jack Black and Owen Wilson.

Also in 1996, MTV invited Stiller to host the VH1 Fashion Awards. Along with SNL writer Drake Sather, Stiller developed a short film for the awards about a male model known as Derek Zoolander. It was so well received that Stiller developed another short film about the character for the 1997 VH1 Fashion Awards and finally remade the skit into a film.

Comedy career

In 1998, Stiller put aside his directing ambitions to star in ''There's Something About Mary'' alongside Cameron Diaz, which accelerated Stiller's acting career. That year he also starred in several dramas including ''Zero Effect'', ''Your Friends & Neighbors'', and ''Permanent Midnight''. Stiller was invited to take part in hosting the Music Video awards, for which he developed a parody of the Backstreet Boys and performed a sketch with his father, commenting on his current career.

In 1999, he starred in three films, including ''Mystery Men'', where he played a superhero wannabe called Mr. Furious. He returned to directing with a new spoof television series for Fox titled ''Heat Vision and Jack'', starring Jack Black, however, the show was not picked up by Fox after its pilot episode and the series was cancelled.

2000 would be a better year for Stiller as he starred in three more films including one of his most recognizable roles, as a male nurse named Greg Focker in ''Meet the Parents'' opposite Robert De Niro. The film was well-received by critics, grossed over $330 million worldwide, and spawned two sequels. Also in 2000, MTV again invited Stiller to make another short film and he developed ''Mission: Improbable'', a spoof of Tom Cruise's role in ''Mission: Impossible II'' and other films.

In 2001, Stiller would direct his third feature film, ''Zoolander'', which focused on the character Derek Zoolander (played by Stiller) that he developed for the VH1 Fashion Awards. The film featured multiple cameos from a variety of celebrities including Donald Trump, Paris Hilton, Lenny Kravitz, Heidi Klum, and David Bowie among others. The film was banned in Malaysia (as the plot centered on an assassination attempt of a Malaysian prime minister) while shots of the World Trade Center were digitally removed and hidden for the film's release after the September 11 terrorist attacks.

After Stiller worked with Owen Wilson in ''Zoolander'', they joined together again for ''The Royal Tenenbaums''. Over the next two years, Stiller continued with the lackluster box office film ''Duplex'' and several cameos in ''Orange County'' and ''Nobody Knows Anything!''. He also guest-starred on several television shows, including an appearance in an episode of the television series ''King Of Queens'' in a flashback as the father of the character Arthur (played by Jerry Stiller). He also made a guest appearance on World Wrestling Entertainment's WWE Raw.

In 2004, Stiller appeared in six different films, all of which were comedies, and include some of his highest grossing films. They include ''Starsky & Hutch'', ''Envy'', ''Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story'', an uncredited cameo in ''Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy'', ''Along Came Polly'', and ''Meet the Fockers''. While ''Envy'' only grossed $14.5 million worldwide, his most successful film of the year was ''Meet the Fockers'', which grossed over $516.6 million worldwide. In 2005, Stiller would begin his first attempt at a computer-animated film with ''Madagascar'', which performed so well at the box office that it resulted in a sequel released in 2008.

In 2006, Stiller had cameo roles in ''School for Scoundrels'', and ''Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny'', for which he served as executive producer. In December, Stiller starred in the lead role of ''Night at the Museum''. Although not a critical favorite, it earned over $115 million in ten days. In 2007, Stiller starred alongside Malin Åkerman in the romantic comedy ''The Heartbreak Kid''. The film earned over $100 million worldwide despite receiving mostly negative reviews. ''Tropic Thunder'', a film he directed, co-wrote, and co-produced, and in which he starred with Robert Downey Jr. and Jack Black, was released on August 13, 2008. In May 2009, he starred with Amy Adams in the sequel ''Night at the Museum 2: Battle of the Smithsonian''. In 2010, Stiller made a brief cameo in Joaquin Phoenix's mockumentary ''I'm Still Here'' and played the lead role in the comedy-drama ''Greenberg''. Stiller again portrayed Gaylord 'Greg' Focker in ''Little Fockers'', the second sequel to ''Meet the Parents''. Stiller had planned to voice a character in ''Megamind'', but later dropped out while still remaining a producer.

Upcoming projects

For 2011, Stiller will join Eddie Murphy and Alan Alda in ''Tower Heist'' about a group of maintenance workers planning a heist in a residential skyscraper. Filming began in November 2010.

The Frat Pack

Stiller is the "acknowledged leader" of the Frat Pack, a core group of actors that has worked together in multiple films. The group includes Jack Black, Will Ferrell, Vince Vaughn, Owen Wilson, Luke Wilson, Steve Carell, and Paul Rudd. Stiller has been acknowledged as the leader of the group due to his multiple cameos and for his consistent use of the other members in roles in films which he produces and directs. He has appeared the most with Owen Wilson, in eleven films including: ''The Cable Guy'' (1996), ''Permanent Midnight'' (1998), ''Heat Vision and Jack'' (1999 television pilot), ''Meet the Parents'' (2000), ''Zoolander'' (2001), ''The Royal Tenenbaums'' (2001), ''Starsky & Hutch'' (2004), ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004), ''Night at the Museum'' (2006), and ''Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian'' (2009) and "Little Fockers" (2010). Of the 35 primary films that are considered Frat Pack films, Stiller has been involved with 20, in some capacity. He is also the only member of this group to have appeared in a Brat Pack film (''Fresh Horses'').

Personal life

Ben Stiller dated several actresses during his early television and film career, including Jeanne Tripplehorn, Calista Flockhart, and Amanda Peet. In May 2000, Stiller married Christine Taylor, whom he met while filming a never-broadcast television pilot for the Fox Broadcasting network called ''Heat Vision and Jack'', which starred Jack Black. The couple appeared onscreen together in ''Zoolander'', ''Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story'', and ''Tropic Thunder''. He and Taylor reside in Hollywood Hills and have a daughter, Ella Olivia, born April 10, 2002, and a son, Quinlin Dempsey, born July 10, 2005.

Stiller is a supporter of the Democratic Party and donated money to John Kerry's 2004 U.S. Presidential campaign. In February 2007, Stiller attended a fundraiser for Barack Obama and later donated to the 2008 U.S. Presidential campaigns of Democrats Obama, John Edwards, and Hillary Clinton. Stiller is also a supporter of several charities including Declare Yourself, the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, and the Starlight Starbright Children's Foundation. In 2010, Stiller joined Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Robin Williams, and other Hollywood stars in "The Cove PSA: My Friend is... ", an effort to stop the slaughter of dolphins and protect the Japanese population from the toxic levels of mercury found in dolphin meat.

In a 1999 interview with ''GQ'' and later in a 2001 interview with Hollywood.com, Stiller stated that he has bipolar disorder, an illness he said that ran in his family. In interviews in November and December 2006, Stiller claimed that this earlier interview's comment about the disorder was false. In one interview he clarified, "I said jokingly in ''GQ'' that I was, like, crazy, and it came out as: Ben Stiller, bipolar manic-depressive!"

Stiller frequently does impersonations of many of his favorite performers, including Bono, Tom Cruise, Bruce Springsteen, and David Blaine. In an interview with ''Parade'', he commented that Robert Klein, George Carlin, and Jimmie Walker were inspirations for his comedy career. Stiller is also a self-professed Trekkie and appeared in the television special ''Star Trek: 30 Years and Beyond'' to express his love of the show, as well as a comedy roast for William Shatner. He frequently references the show in his work, and named his production company Red Hour Productions after the original ''Star Trek'' episode "The Return of the Archons".

Filmography

Actor

Year	! Film	! Role	! Notes
		Dainty
	Chris Honeywell
''Shoeshine''
1988	''Fresh Horses''	Tipton
		Lawrence Isabella
''Elvis Stories''	Bruce
''That's Adequate''	Chip Lane
1990		Jim Uptegrove
	''The Nutt House''	Pie Thrower	Cameo
	Pluto's Cook/Attila the Hun
1994	''Reality Bites''	Michael Grates	Also director
1995	''Heavyweights''	Tony Perkis/Tony Perkis Sr.
	''The Cable Guy''	Sam Sweet/Stan Sweet	Also director
	Mel
''If Lucy Fell''	Bwick Elias
''Happy Gilmore''	Hal L. (Nursing Home Orderly)
	''Permanent Midnight''	Jerry Stahl
''Your Friends & Neighbors''	Jerry
''There's Something About Mary''	Ted Stroehmann
''Zero Effect''	Steve Arlo
		Mark Clear
''Mystery Men''	Mr. Furious
''The Suburbans''	Jay Rose
	''Meet the Parents''	Gaylord 'Greg' Focker
''Keeping the Faith''	Rabbi Jake Schram
	Cop
	''The Royal Tenenbaums''	Chas Tenenbaum
''Zoolander''	Derek Zoolander	Also writer and director
		The Firefighter	Cameo
''Run Ronnie Run''	Himself
	''Nobody Knows Anything!''	Peach Expert	Cameo
	Alex Rose
''Pauly Shore Is Dead''	Himself	Cameo
	''Meet the Fockers''	Gaylord 'Greg' Focker
''Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy''	Arturo Mendes	Cameo
''Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story''	White Goodman
	Tim Dingman
	David Starsky
''Along Came Polly''	Reuben Feffer
	''Danny Roane: First Time Director''	Himself
	Alex	Voice only
''Sledge: The Untold Story''	Commander
	''Night at the Museum''	Larry Daley
''In Search of Ted Demme''	Himself
''Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny''	Guitar Center Guy	Cameo and producer
	Lonnie
2007		Eddie Cantrow
	''Tropic Thunder''	Tugg Speedman	Also writer and directorNominated - MTV Movie Awards
''[[Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa''	Alex	Voice only
	''Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian''	Larry Daley
''The Marc Pease Experience''	Jon Gribble
		Roger Greenberg
	Himself
''Megamind''	Bernard	Executive ProducerVoice-Role
''Little Fockers''	Gaylord 'Greg' Focker
		Ben Stiller	Exagerated Version of Himself, Cameo (uncredited)
''Tower Heist''	Josh Kovacs
''Bunnicula''	Edgar Allan Crow
	Himself	Cameo
	''Madagascar 3''	Alex	Voice only in production

Director and producer

Year			! Notes
1989	''Elvis Stories''	Director/Writer
1994	Reality Bites'' >
1996	''The Cable Guy''
1999	''Heat Vision and Jack''
2001	''Zoolander''
rowspan="2">2003	Duplex (film)>Duplex''
''Crooked Lines''	Executive producer
rowspan="2"		2004	Starsky & Hutch (film)>Starsky & Hutch''
''Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story''	Producer
2006	''Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny''
2007	Blades of Glory'' >
rowspan="2"	2008	''Date School''
''Tropic Thunder''	Director/Producer/Writer
2009	The Boys: The Sherman Brothers' Story'' >
2010	''Megamind''
2010	Submarine (2010 film)>Submarine''
2011	''30 Minutes or Less''

Television work

< ''The Ben Stiller Show'' ''Duckman'' ''NewsRadio'' ''Heat Vision and Jack'' ''Freaks and Geeks'' ''The Simpsons'' ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' ''Arrested Development (TV series) ''Extras (TV series) ''Phineas and Ferb'' ''Onion News Network''

Year			! Role	! Notes
1987	''Miami Vice''
rowspan="2">1990	''The Ben Stiller Show''	|	Himself	Director and writer
''Working Trash''	Freddy Novak
1992–1993	|	Himself	Director, producer, and writer
rowspan="2">1995	|	Harry Medfly	Voice only; single episode
''2 Stupid Dogs''	Tony Robbins-style character
1996	|	Vic	Single episode
1997	''Friends''
1998	''Space Ghost Coast to Coast''
rowspan="2"	1999	|	Strip Club DJ	Director and executive producer
''WWE Raw	WWF Raw Is War''	Himself
2000	|	Secret Service Agent	Single episode
2001	''Undeclared''
rowspan="3"	2002	|	Garth Motherloving	Voice only; single episode
''Prehistoric Planet''	Narrator
''The King of Queens''	Jerry
2004	|	Himself	Three episodes
2004–2006	Arrested Development'' ||	Tony Wonder	Four episodes
2005	Extras'' ||	Himself	Single episode
2007	Family Guy'' >
2008	''Sesame Street''
rowspan="3"	2010	|	Khaka Peu Peu	The Beak (Phineas and Ferb)>The Beak
''Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!''	Himself
''The Trip (2010 TV series)	The Trip''	Himself
2011	|	Himself	Single episode

Music videos

"Rollin' (Limp Bizkit song) "Bad Boy for Life" "Tribute (song) "Taylor (song) "Closer (Travis song)

Year			! Artist	! Role
1999	All Star (song)>All Star"	Smash Mouth
rowspan="2">2000	Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)" ||	Limp Bizkit	Himself
"Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water"
2001	|	Sean Combs	P. Diddy's Neighbor
2002	Tribute" ||	Tenacious D	Himself
2004	Taylor" || Jack Johnson
2006	''Awesome; I Fuckin' Shot That!''
2007	Closer" ||	Travis (band)>Travis	Supermarket Manager

Awards and honors

Stiller was awarded an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing in a Variety or Music Program"for his work on ''The Ben Stiller Show''. He has been nominated twelve times for the Teen Choice Awards and won once for "Choice Hissy Fit" for his work in ''Zoolander''. He also was nominated by the MTV Movie Awards thirteen times and won three times for "Best Fight" in ''There's Something About Mary'', "Best Comedic Performance" in ''Meet the Parents'', and "Best Villain" in ''Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story''. Princeton University's Class of 2005 inducted Stiller as an honorary member of the class during its "Senior Week" in April 2005. On February 23, 2007, Stiller received the Hasty Pudding Man of the Year award from Harvard's Hasty Pudding Theatricals. According to the organization, the award is given to performers who give a lasting and impressive contribution to the world of entertainment. On March 31, 2007, Stiller received the "Wannabe Award" from the Kids' Choice Awards. On May 31, 2009, Stiller received the MTV Generation Award, at the 2009 MTV Movie Awards. It is the ceremony's top honor.

References

Further reading

Bankston, John. ''Ben Stiller (Real-Life Reader Biography)''. Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2002. ISBN 1584151323.

Dougherty, Terri. ''Ben Stiller (People in the News)''. Lucent Books, 2006. ISBN 1590187237.

External links

Category:1965 births Category:Living people Category:Actors from New York Category:American Jews Category:American comedians Category:American film actors Category:American film directors Category:American film producers Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American screenwriters Category:American television actors Category:American television directors Category:American television writers Category:American voice actors Category:California Democrats Category:Emmy Award winners Category:Jewish actors Category:Jewish comedians Category:People from Manhattan Category:Film directors from New York City

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